Determinants of Local Community Involvement in Ecotourism Development in and around Kakamega Forest Reserve, Kenya
Main Article Content
Keywords
Community participation, ecotourism, protected areas, Kakamega Forest, Kenya
Abstract
Community involvement is widely recognized as a cornerstone of sustainable ecotourism, yet the structural and socio-economic factors that determine participation in protected areas remain under-researched. This study examines the determinants of local community involvement in ecotourism development in and around Kakamega Forest Reserve, Kenya. Guided by Social Exchange Theory and ecotourism theory, a descriptive survey design was employed with a sample of 207 respondents, including local residents, key informants, and focus group participants. Data was collected through structured questionnaires, interview schedules, and focus group discussions, and analyzed using descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression. Results indicate that the probability of involvement is significantly increased by strong investor–community relationships (B = 0.82, p < .001, OR = 2.27), access to training (B = 0.76, p < .001, OR = 2.14), ecotourism awareness (B = 0.69, p < .001, OR = 1.99), government policy support (B = 0.58, p = .004, OR = 1.79), NGO support (B = 0.47, p = .006, OR = 1.60), and availability of social amenities (B = 0.41, p = .023, OR = 1.51). Conversely, poverty (B = −0.88, p < .001, OR = 0.42) and inadequate infrastructure (B = −0.63, p = .004, OR = 0.53) substantially reduce the likelihood of participation. The findings confirm that community involvement is not merely a function of individual willingness but is structurally contingent on institutional support, human capital, and economic capacity. The study recommends integrated policy interventions that combine microfinance, decentralized capacity-building, infrastructure investment, and inclusive governance to democratize ecotourism participation in protected areas.
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References
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Sharpley, R. (2014). Host perceptions of tourism: A review of the research. Tourism Management, 42, 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.10.007
Smits, E. A. J. (2013). 'Community participation' and 'community involvement in the benefits' among ecotourism operators: Comparing theory with practice by means of an in-depth case study in the Daintree Coast, Australia [Master's thesis, Wageningen University].
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Tosun, C. (2000). Limits to community participation in the tourism development process in developing countries. Tourism Management, 21(6), 613–633. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(00)00009-1
Tosun, C., & Timothy, D. J. (2003). Arguments for community participation in the tourism development process. Journal of Tourism Studies, 14(2), 2–15.
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Weaver, D. B. (2001). Ecotourism. John Wiley & Sons.
Weaver, D. B. (2002). The evolving concept of ecotourism and its potential impacts. International Journal of Sustainable Development, 5(3), 251–264. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSD.2002.003753
Weaver, D. B. (2008). Ecotourism (2nd ed.). Wiley.
Xaba, F., Adanlawo, E. F., & Nkomo, N. Y. (2024). Community participation in ecotourism projects in selected South African municipalities. International Journal of Business Ecosystem & Strategy, 6(3), 266–275. https://doi.org/10.36096/ijbes.v6i3.492
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Althof, A. J. (2005). Human impact on flora and vegetation of Kakamega Forest, Kenya: Structure, distribution and disturbance of plant communities in an East African rainforest [Doctoral dissertation, Universität Koblenz-Landau].
Bizimana, J. P., & Uwimpuhwe, D. (2025). The contribution of tourism revenue sharing on the livelihood of communities surrounding Gishwati-Mukura National Park. Global Scientific Journal, 13(3).
Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. John Wiley & Sons.
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Chan, J. K. L., Marzuki, K. M., & Mohtar, T. M. (2021). Local community participation and responsible tourism practices in ecotourism destination: A case of Lower Kinabatangan, Sabah. Sustainability, 13(23), 13302. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132313302
Donohoe, H. M., & Needham, R. D. (2006). Ecotourism: The evolving contemporary definition. Journal of Ecotourism, 5(3), 192–210. https://doi.org/10.2167/joe152.0
Dubale, S. A., & Esubalew, B. (2024). Opportunities and challenges of community participation in community-based ecotourism development in Wof-Washa Forest Area, Ethiopia. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality, 8(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.34013/jk.v8i2.1650
Emerson, R. M. (1976). Social exchange theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 2(1), 335–362. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.02.080176.002003
Guthiga, P., & Mburu, J. (2006, June). Local communities' incentives for forest conservation: Case of Kakamega Forest in Kenya. In 11th Biannual Conference of International Association for the Study of Common Property (IASCP), Indonesia.
Han, J. H., Kim, S., & Kim, J. (2023). A synthesis of bottom-up spillover theory and social exchange theory in nature-based tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 31(4), 892–911. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.2022526
Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63(6), 597–606. https://doi.org/10.1086/222355. https://www.globalscientificjournal.com/researchpaper/The_Contribution_of_Tourism_Revenue_Sharing_on_the_Livelihood_of_Communities_Surrounding_Gishwati_Mukura_National_Park.pdf
Ireri, P. M. (2022). Benefit sharing and community participation in ecotourism in Meru and Laikipia Counties, Kenya [Doctoral dissertation, Kenyatta University].
Jurowski, C., Uysal, M., & Williams, D. R. (1997). A theoretical analysis of host community resident reactions to tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 36(2), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759703600202
Kala, D., & Bagri, S. C. (2018). Barriers to local community participation in tourism development: Evidence from mountainous state Uttarakhand, India. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal, 66(3), 318–333.
Kamga, S. M., Tamungang, S. A., Awa, T., Ewome, F. L., Motombi, F. N., Hořák, D., & Riegert, J. (2022). The importance of forest elephants for vegetation structure modification and its influence on the bird community of a mid-elevation
forest on Mount Cameroon, West-Central Africa. Diversity, 14(3), 227. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14030227
Kiama, M. (2024, January 8). Promoting conservation in Mount Kenya Forest through nature-based enterprises. Nature Kenya. https://naturekenya.org/2024/01/08/promoting-conservation-in-mount-kenya-forest-through-nature-based-enterprises/
Kihima, B. O., & Musila, P. M. (2020). Constraints to community participation in tourism in Kenya: The Mwaluganje Elephant Sanctuary. Journal of Tourism & Adventure, 3(1), 159–176. https://doi.org/10.3126/jota.v3i1.31363
Kim, K. H., & Park, D. B. (2017). Relationships among perceived value, satisfaction, and loyalty: Community-based ecotourism in Korea. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 34(2), 171–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2016.1156609
Kombo, D. K., & Tromp, D. L. (2006). Proposal and thesis writing: An introduction. Paulines Publications Africa.
Krüger, O. (2005). The role of ecotourism in conservation: Panacea or Pandora's box? Biodiversity & Conservation, 14(3), 579–600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-004-3917-4
Le, T. A., Butowski, L., Quirini-Popławski, Ł., & Nguyen, S. H. (2025). Local community participation in ecotourism
development: A qualitative analysis in the Binh-Tri-Thien Region, Vietnam. Przegląd Geograficzny, 1, 105–126. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.1.6
Makindi, S. M. (2016). Local communities, biodiversity conservation and ecotourism: A case study of the Kimana Community Wildlife Sanctuary, Kenya. https://doaj.org/article/e53f5b45148340e69fb16444c9094366
Makomere, J. (2024). Implementation status and challenges of ecotourism practices within hospitality industry in Kenya. Journal of Frontiers in Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(1), 51–61.
Mbatiany, B. N. (2016). Influence of ecotourism on sustainable development of communities living adjacent to forests: A Case of Muileshi Community Forest association in Kakamega Forest. Kenya, University of Nairobi, Nairobi.
McGehee, N. G., & Andereck, K. L. (2004). Factors predicting rural residents' support of tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 43(2), 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287504268234
Moswete, N. N., Saarinen, J., & Thapa, B. (2023). Socio-economic impacts of community-based ecotourism on rural livelihoods in Botswana. In Tourism and community development in Southern Africa (pp. 123–145). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99435-8_8
Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. African Centre for Technology Studies.
Nghipondoka, R. (2023). Community conservancies and ecotourism development in Namibia: Livelihood and conservation linkages [Doctoral dissertation, Namibia University of Science and Technology]. https://repository.nust.na
Omondi, K., & Kamau, J. (2010). Limitations to community participation in tourism development process in Kenya: Case study of Kakamega Forest National Reserve and adjacent communities. International Journal of Creativity and Technical Development, 2(1–3), 45–58.
Ouma, O. K., & Stadel, C. (2006). Kakamega Forest, ecotourism and rural livelihoods: Linkages and interactions for the Kakamega Forest region, Western Kenya. In Tourism and Protected Areas II. WIT Press.
Ouma, O. K., & Stadel, C. (2021). Developing a livelihood: Conservation model for the Kakamega Forest region, Kenya using experiences from Berchtesgaden National Park, Germany. World Leisure Journal, 63(1), 51–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/16078055.2021.1887999
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Sage.
Rono, B. J. (2016). Attitudes and perceptions towards ecotourism among pastoral communities in Laikipia County, Kenya [Doctoral dissertation, Egerton University].
Runya, R. M., Karani, N. J., Muriuki, A., Maringa, D. M., Kamau, A. W., Ndomasi, N., & Okello, J. A. (2022). Local perceptions, opportunities, and challenges of community-based ecotourism in Gazi Bay, Kenya. Western Indian
Ocean Journal of Marine Science, 21(2), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.4314/wiojms.v21i2.9
Saufi, A., O'Brien, D., & Wilkins, H. (2014). Inhibitors to host community participation in sustainable tourism development in developing countries. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(5), 801–820. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2013.861468
Sharpley, R. (2014). Host perceptions of tourism: A review of the research. Tourism Management, 42, 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.10.007
Smits, E. A. J. (2013). 'Community participation' and 'community involvement in the benefits' among ecotourism operators: Comparing theory with practice by means of an in-depth case study in the Daintree Coast, Australia [Master's thesis, Wageningen University].
Stone, M. T. (2015). Community-based ecotourism: A collaborative partnerships perspective. Journal of Ecotourism, 14(2–3), 166–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/14724049.2015.1023309
Stronza, A. L., Hunt, C. A., & Fitzgerald, L. A. (2019). Ecotourism for conservation? Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 44, 229–253. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-101718-033046
Tadesse, S. A., & Teketay, D. (2017). Perceptions and attitudes of local people towards participatory forest management in Tarmaber District of North Shewa Administrative Zone, Ethiopia: The case of Wof-Washa Forests. Ecological Processes, 6(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-017-0084-6
Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2007). Mixed methods sampling: A typology with examples. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 77–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689806292430
Tendo, M. R. (2023). Community participation in ecotourism development and conservation of forest resources: A case study of Mabira Forest in Buikwe district [Unpublished undergraduate dissertation, Makerere University]. https://dissertations.mak.ac.ug/handle/20.500.12281/21181
Timothy, D. J., & Tosun, C. (2003). Arguments for community participation in the tourism development process. Journal of Tourism Studies, 14(2), 2–15.
Tosun, C. (2000). Limits to community participation in the tourism development process in developing countries. Tourism Management, 21(6), 613–633. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(00)00009-1
Tosun, C., & Timothy, D. J. (2003). Arguments for community participation in the tourism development process. Journal of Tourism Studies, 14(2), 2–15.
UNWTO. (2018). Report on tourism and culture synergies. World Tourism Organization.
Van Breugel, L. (2013). Community-based tourism: Local participation and perceived impacts: A comparative study between two communities in Thailand [Master's thesis, Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen].
Weaver, D. B. (2001). Ecotourism. John Wiley & Sons.
Weaver, D. B. (2002). The evolving concept of ecotourism and its potential impacts. International Journal of Sustainable Development, 5(3), 251–264. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSD.2002.003753
Weaver, D. B. (2008). Ecotourism (2nd ed.). Wiley.
Xaba, F., Adanlawo, E. F., & Nkomo, N. Y. (2024). Community participation in ecotourism projects in selected South African municipalities. International Journal of Business Ecosystem & Strategy, 6(3), 266–275. https://doi.org/10.36096/ijbes.v6i3.492
Ziegler, J., Araujo, G., Labaja, J., Snow, S., King, J. N., Ponzo, A., & Dearden, P. (2021). Can ecotourism change community attitudes towards conservation? Oryx, 55(4), 546–555. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605319000607
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Aug 31, 2026
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Kirwa , I., Ariya , G., Ipara , H., & Wanjiku , M. (2026). Determinants of Local Community Involvement in Ecotourism Development in and around Kakamega Forest Reserve, Kenya. Journal of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems, 4(2), 105–117. Retrieved from https://bluprintpub.com/index.php/JATEMS/article/view/400
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Author Biographies
Isaiah Kirwa , Department of Tourism, Travel and Tour Operations Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
Department of Tourism, Travel and Tour Operations Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
George Ariya , Department of Tourism, Travel and Tour Operations Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
Department of Tourism, Travel and Tour Operations Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
Hellen Ipara , Department of Wildlife Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
Department of Wildlife Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
Mary Wanjiku , Department of Tourism, Travel and Tour Operations Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125-30100, Eldoret, Kenya
Department of Tourism, Travel and Tour Operations Management, University of Eldoret, P.O. Box 1125-30100, Eldoret, Kenya